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1 drift
1. noun1) (flow, steady movement) Wanderung, die2. intransitive verbdrift into crime — in die Kriminalität [ab]driften
drift into unconsciousness — in Bewusstlosigkeit versinken
2) (coll.): (come or go casually)drift in — hereinschneien (ugs.)
3) (form drifts) zusammengeweht werdendrifting sand — Treibsand, der
* * *[drift] 1. noun1) (a heap of something driven together, especially snow: His car stuck in a snowdrift.) das Treiben2) (the direction in which something is going; the general meaning: I couldn't hear you clearly, but I did catch the drift of what you said.) die Richtung2. verb1) (to (cause to) float or be blown along: Sand drifted across the road; The boat drifted down the river.) treiben•- academic.ru/22395/drifter">drifter- driftwood* * *[drɪft]I. viwe let ourselves \drift downstream wir ließen uns flussabwärts treibento \drift out to sea aufs offene Meer hinaustreiben2. (move aimlessly) [ziellos] herumwandernafter the meeting, people \drifted away in twos and threes nach der Versammlung schlenderten die Leute in Zweier- und Dreiergrüppchen davonshe just seems to \drift from one boyfriend to another sie scheint von einer Beziehung in die nächste zu schlitternthe talk \drifted aimlessly from one subject to another man kam vom Hundertsten ins Tausendsteto \drift into crime in die Kriminalität abdriftento \drift into a situation in eine Situation hineingeratento \drift with the tide mit dem Strom schwimmen4. (pile up) Verwehungen bilden, angeweht werdensnow had \drifted against the garage door vor der Garagentür war Schnee angeweht wordencotton prices \drifted in the first quarter Baumwollpreise gaben im ersten Quartal leicht nachII. nthe \drift of unemployed youth der Zustrom arbeitsloser Jugendlicher\drift from the land Landflucht fdownward \drift Abwärtstrend mthe downward \drift in copper prices der Preisverfall bei Kupfer\drift of snow Schneewehe f, Schneeverwehung f\drift of sand Sandwehe f, Haufen m Flugsand* * *[drɪft]1. vito drift off course —
rally drivers have a technique of drifting round corners — Rallyefahrer haben eine Technik, sich durch Kurven tragen zu lassen
he drifted into marriage/crime — er schlitterte in die Ehe/in eine kriminelle Laufbahn hinein
he drifted from job to job — er ließ sich planlos von Job zu Job treiben
he was drifting aimlessly along (in life etc) — er lebte planlos in den Tag hinein, er ließ sich plan- und ziellos treiben
young people are drifting away from the villages — junge Leute wandern aus den Dörfern ab
2. vttreiben; (wind) snow also vor sich her treiben3. n1) (of air, water current) Strömung fthe drift of the current (speed) — die (Stärke der) Strömung; (direction) die Strömung(srichtung)
4) (GEOL: deposits) Geschiebe ntglacial drift — Moräne f
5)(= tendency)
the drift towards the cities — der Drang in die StädteI caught the drift of what he said — ich verstand, worauf er hinauswollte
if you get my drift — wenn Sie mich richtig verstehen
* * *drift [drıft]A s1. Treiben n2. FLUG, SCHIFF Abtrift f, Abtrieb m, (Kurs)Versetzung f4. GEOG Drift(strömung) f (im Meer)5. (Strömungs)Richtung f6. figa) Strömung f, Tendenz f, Lauf m, Richtung f:drift away from allmähliches Abgehen vonb) Absicht f:the drift of what he said was er meinte oder sagen wollte, worauf er hinauswolltec) Gedankengang m:d) Sinn m, Bedeutung f7. etwas Dahingetriebenes, besondersa) Treibholz nb) Treibeis nc) Wolkenfetzen pl10. GEOL Geschiebe n11. Abwanderung f:drift from the country Landflucht f12. figa) treibende Kraftb) (bestimmender) Einfluss13. fig (Sich)Treibenlassen n, Ziellosigkeit f14. TECHa) Lochräumer m, -hammer mb) Austreiber m, Dorn mc) Punzen m, Durchschlag mB v/iinto in einen Krieg etc):drift apart sich auseinanderleben;a) abwandern,b) sich entfernen ( from von);let things drift den Dingen ihren Lauf lassen2. ( besonders ziellos) (herum)wandern3. fig sich (willenlos) treiben lasseninto in akk):he drifted into a marriage er schlitterte in eine Ehe5. sich häufen, Verwehungen bilden:drifting sand Flugsand mC v/t1. (dahin)treiben, (-)tragen2. wehen3. aufhäufen, zusammentreiben* * *1. noun1) (flow, steady movement) Wanderung, die2) (fig.): (trend, shift, tendency) Tendenz, die3) (flow of air or water) Strömung, die5) (of snow or sand) Verwehung, die6) (fig.): (gist, import) das Wesentliche2. intransitive verbget or catch the drift of something — etwas im Wesentlichen verstehen
1) (be borne by current; fig.): (move passively or aimlessly) treiben; [Wolke:] ziehendrift into crime — in die Kriminalität [ab]driften
2) (coll.): (come or go casually)drift in — hereinschneien (ugs.)
3) (form drifts) zusammengeweht werdendrifting sand — Treibsand, der
* * *n.Abdrift -e f. v.abweichen v.treiben v.(§ p.,pp.: trieb, getrieben) -
2 gage
1) средство (для) измерений; (контрольно-)измерительный прибор; измеритель; (контрольно-)измерительный инструмент; измерительное устройство || измерять2) калибр; мера; размер; сортамент; толщина ( листового металла); диаметр ( проволоки или винта)3) поверять; калибровать; градуировать4) шаблон; лекало5) эталон6) датчик, (первичный) измерительный преобразователь7) манометр; вакуумметр, вакуумный манометр8) гидр. уровнемер; водомер10) матем. калибр ( топологического пространства)11) номер сита12) маяк, правило ( при устройстве асфальтобетонного или бетонного покрытия)13) рейсмус || размечать с помощью рейсмуса16) колея, ширина колеи18) гейч ( вязальной машины)19) класс ( трикотажной машины)•to encase strain gage in cement — изготавливать тензодатчик в плёнке клея;to keep material on gage — поддерживать параметры материала (напр. толщину) в заданных пределах;to mount strain gage — устанавливать тензодатчик;to reverse a gage — менять меру (напр. длины) концами;gage with metric scale — индикатор с метрической шкалой-
absolute gage
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absolute vacuum gage
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acceptance gage
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accumulative precipitation gage
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acoustical strain gage
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acoustic strain gage
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active strain gage
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adjustable gage
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adjustable rail gage
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adjuster gage
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adzing gage
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AE gage
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Agir water gage
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air filter vacuum gage
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air gage
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air pressure gage
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air restriction gage
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air-operated gage
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alarm pressure gage
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alcohol gage
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American wire gage
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angular gage
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auxiliary staff gage
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back gage
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ball gage
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ball plug gage
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battery gage
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Bayard-Alpert gage
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bayonet gage
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bellows gage
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belt strand tension gage
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bench gage
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beta-absorption gage
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beta gage
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Birmingham wire gage
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block gage
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bonded strain gage
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bottom-hole pressure gage
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Bourdon pressure gage
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box gage
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brine gage
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broad based depth gage
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broad gage
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bubble gage
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buoyant-element level gage
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butt gage
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caliper gage
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cap gage
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capacitance strain gage
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capacitance gage
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center gage
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charge gage
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check gage
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circumferential strain gage
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clapboard gage
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clearance gage
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cold-cathode ionization gage
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Collins flow gage
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comb gage
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combination gage
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combined pressure gage
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compression gage
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concentricity gage
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consistency gage
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contact gage
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contact pressure gage
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contour gage
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control gage
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convergence gage
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counter gage
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crankshaft gage
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curve gage
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cutting gage
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damped pressure gage
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deadweight gage
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deep-sea tsunami gage
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density gage
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depth gage
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dew gage
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dial bore gage
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dial gage
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diametral gage
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diaphragm pressure gage
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differential pressure gage
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differential vacuum gage
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digital pressure gage
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digital weighing gage
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dimension gage
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direct pressure gage
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direct-measuring gage
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direct-reading gage
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discharge gage
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downhole casing wall thickness gage
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draft gage
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drainage gage
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draught gage
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drift diameter pipe gage
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drilling bit gage
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dual boost gage
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dummy strain gage
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edge-reading gage
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elastic-element pressure gage
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electrical resistance strain gage
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electrical strain gage
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electrical temperature gage
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electrically heated snow gage
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electrical-type strain gage
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electromagnetic strain gage
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end gage
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engine coolant level gage
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evapotranspiration gage
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extended track position gage
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external gage
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external strain gage
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fast-response gage
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fast gage
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feeler gage
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female gage
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fillet gage
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film gage
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fixed river gage
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flat-ended gage
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flatness gage
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flexible gage
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float gage
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flood gage
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flow gage
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flowmeter pressure gage
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fluid content gage
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foil strain gage
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force gage
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force-feedback gage
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frame gage
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free-piston gage
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fuel level gage
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fuel pressure gage
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fuel quantity gage
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gamma-absorption gage
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gap gage
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gas density gage
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gas gage
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gasoline gage
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general-purpose pressure gage
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glass gage
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go gage
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go-no-go gage
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grinding gage
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grouser height depth gage
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hardness gage
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high-water gage
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hook gage
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horseshoe gage
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hose skiving gage
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hot-cathode ionization gage
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hot-cathode magnetron gage
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inclined staff gage
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indentation depth gage
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indicating gage
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inductance strain gage
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industrial gage
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inprocess gage
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inside gage
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inspection gage
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integral pressure gage
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internal gage
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ionization gage
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ion gage
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ionization pressure gage
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irradiated fuel assay gage
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jaw gage
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Johansson gage
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joint clearance gage
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keyway gage
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Knudsen gage
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laser gage
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laser rain gage
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lead gage
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length gage
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level difference gage
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level gage
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lever gage
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lever-type piston gage
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limit gage
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limit plug gage
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line gage
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line space gage
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liquid level gage
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loading gage
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low-water gage
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magnetron gage
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male gage
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manometer gage
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marking gage
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master gage
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McLeod gage
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mechanical pressure gage
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mechanical strain gage
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mechanical temperature gage
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mercurial gage
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metal-film strain gage
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metric gage
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micrometer gage
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micropressure gage
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milk gage
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modulator ionization gage
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moire strain gage
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molecular gage
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mortise gage
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multichecking indicator gage
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must gage
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narrow gage
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needle gage
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no-go gage
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noncontact gage
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normal gage
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nude gage
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nude-ion gage
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oil circulation gage
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oil gage
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oil pressure gage
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oil temperature gage
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oil-depth gage
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optical flat gage
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optical rain gage
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optical strain gage
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packing gage
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paper gage
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paper sheet gage
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paper-backed strain gage
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parallel slip gage
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partial pressure gage
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partial-pressure vacuum gage
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Penning pressure gage
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perforation gage
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petrol gage
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Philips gage
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photoelastic strain gage
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piezoelectric strain gage
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piezoresistive strain gage
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pin gage
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pipe gage
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Pirani gage
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piston gage
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pit rain gage
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Pitot tube gage
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Pitot gage
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plug gage
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pneumatic gage
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pneumatic strain gage
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point gage
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pointer gage
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position gage
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postprocess gage
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postyield strain gage
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precipitation gage
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precision gage
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pressure gage
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pressure tide gage
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pressure-recording gage
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pressure-vacuum compound recording gage
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pressure-vacuum gage
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primary gage
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production gage
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profile gage
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quartz gage
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radioactive gage
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radioactive ionization gage
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radioisotope snow gage
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radiometer pressure gage
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radiometer vacuum gage
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radius gage
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rail gage
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rain gage
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recording rain gage
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Redhead gage
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reed gage
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reference gage
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reference water gage
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regular pressure gage
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remote rain gage
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resistance strain gage
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resistivity gage
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resonance gage
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retracted track position gage
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reuse gage
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ring gage
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ring seal gage
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river gage
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rod gage
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rosette-type strain gage
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roundness gage
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rubber gage
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sagitta gage
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sampling gage
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saw gage
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screw pitch gage
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sea gage
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section gage
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sectional staff gage
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seepage gage
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self-balancing strain gage
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self-temperature-compensating gage
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semiconductor strain gage
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setting gage
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setup gage
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sheet metal gage
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sheet gage
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shifting gage
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siding gage
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sight gage
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sight level gage
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silphon gage
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single-end gage
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single-head gage
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size gage
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slanting hole rain gage
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slant-tube gage
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slide gage
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slip gage
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sloping gage
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slur gage
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smoke gage
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snap gage
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snow gage
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snow-depth gage
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snow-drift gage
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soil rain gage
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sonic gage
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spherical-ended gage
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spherical-piston gage
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spindle-mounted strain gage
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spindle strain gage
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staff gage
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stage gage
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standard gage
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standard test gage
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standard wire gage
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stepped plug gage
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strain gage
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stream gage
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stress gage
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strip gage
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subsurface water gage
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suction gage
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suppressor ionization gage
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surface finish gage
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surface gage
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Swedish gage
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tank-level gage
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tank gage
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taper gage
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temperature gage
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template gage
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test gage
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thermal conductivity gage
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thermal gage
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thermistor gage
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thermistor vacuum gage
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thermocouple vacuum gage
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thickness dial gage
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thickness gage
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thread gage
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tide gage
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tilt and runout gage
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tipping-bucket rain gage
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tire depth gage
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toe-in gage
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tong torque gage
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tool-setting gage
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totalizer precipitation gage
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totalizer rain gage
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track gage
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track pitch gage
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track sag gage
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transducer gage
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tread depth gage
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tubing gage
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type-high gage
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unbonded strain gage
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unpacked-piston gage
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U-tube gage
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vacuum gage
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vacuum ionization gage
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vacuum pressure gage
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vacuum-backed piston gage
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valve lash gage
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velocity gage
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vernier depth gage
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vernier height gage
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vernier-caliper gage
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viscosity gage
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visual-indicating gage
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volt gage
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water level gage
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wave gage
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wear-and-tear gage
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weather gage
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weighing-type rain and snow gage
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weir gage
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weldable strain gage
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wide gage
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wind gage
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wine-level gage
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wire feeler gage
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wire gage
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wire strain gage
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wire-weight gage
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working gage
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X-ray gage
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X-ray thickness gage -
3 DC
- цифровая вычислительная машина
- центр обработки данных
- система цифрового управления
- символ управления устройством
- сбросной конденсатор
- разработчик проекта
- работающий на постоянном токе
- пульт диспетчера
- прямое включение
- постоянный ток
- охладитель дренажей на ТЭС
- отстойник (осветлитель)
- осаждённая угольная частица
- описание (функциональная связь)
- контроль документооборота
- конденсатор выпара
- компенсация дисперсии
- канал дренажей
- канал (передачи) данных
- изменение конструкции или проекта
- завершение проекта
- дрейфовая камера
- двойной контакт
двойной контакт
—
[Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]Тематики
- электротехника, основные понятия
EN
изменение конструкции или проекта
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
канал (передачи) данных
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]Тематики
EN
компенсация дисперсии
(МСЭ-Т G.959.1).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
контроль документооборота
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
осаждённая угольная частица
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
отстойник (осветлитель)
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
- decanter
- DC
охладитель дренажей на ТЭС
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
постоянный ток
Электрический ток, не изменяющийся во времени.
Примечание — Аналогично определяют постоянные электрическое напряжение, электродвижущую силу, магнитный поток и т. д.
[ ГОСТ Р 52002-2003]Параллельные тексты EN-RU For definition, the electric current called “direct” has a unidirectional trend constant in time.
As a matter of fact, by analyzing the motion of the charges at a point crossed by a direct current, it results that the quantity of charge (Q) flowing through that point (or better, through that cross section) in each instant is always the same.
[ABB]Постоянным током называется электрический ток, значение и направление которого, не изменяются во времени.
Если рассматривать постоянный ток как прохождение элементарных электрических зарядов через определенную точку, то значение заряда (Q), протекающего через эту точку (а вернее через это поперечное сечение проводника) за единицу времени будет постоянным.
[Перевод Интент]Direct current, which was once the main means of distributing electric power, is still widespread today in the electrical plants supplying particular industrial applications.
The advantages in terms of settings, offered by the employ of d.c. motors and by supply through a single line, make direct current supply a good solution for railway and underground systems, trams, lifts and other transport means.
In addition, direct current is used in conversion plants (installations where different types of energy are converted into electrical direct energy, e.g. photovoltaic plants) and, above all, in those emergency applications where an auxiliary energy source is required to supply essential services, such as protection systems, emergency lighting, wards and factories, alarm systems, computer centers, etc..
Accumulators - for example – constitute the most reliable energy source for these services, both directly in direct current as well as by means of uninterruptible power supply units (UPS), when loads are supplied in alternating current.
[ABB]Когда-то электрическая энергия передавалась и распределялась только на постоянном токе. Но и в настоящее время в отдельных отраслях промышленности постоянный ток применяется достаточно широко.
Возможности использования двигателей постоянного тока и передачи электроэнергии по линии с меньшим числом проводников дают неоспоримые преимущества при электроснабжении железных дорог, подземного транспорта, трамваев, лифтов и т. д.
Кроме того, существуют источники постоянного тока, являющиеся преобразователями различных видов энергии непосредственно в электрическую энергию, например, фотоэлектрические станции. Дополнительные источники постоянного тока применяют в аварийных ситуациях для питания систем защиты, аварийного освещения жилых районов и на производстве, систем сигнализации, компьютерных центров и т. д.
Для решения указанных задач наиболее подходящим источником электроэнергии является аккумулятор. Нагрузки постоянного тока получают электропитание непосредственно от аккумулятора. Нагрузки переменного тока – от источника бесперебойного питания (ИБП), частью которого является аккумулятор.
[Перевод Интент]Direct current can be generated:
- by using batteries or accumulators where the current is generated directly through chemical processes;
- by the rectification of alternating current through rectifiers (static conversion);
- by the conversion of mechanical work into electrical energy using dynamos (production through rotating machines).
[ABB]Постоянный ток можно получить следующими способами:
- от аккумуляторов, в которых электрическая энергия образуется за счет происходящих внутри аккумулятора химических реакций;
- выпрямлением переменного тока с помощью выпрямителей (статических преобразователей);
- преобразованием механической энергии в электрическую с помощью генераторов постоянного тока (вращающихся машин).
[Перевод Интент]In the low voltage field, direct current is used for different applications, which, in the following pages, have been divided into four macrofamilies including:
- conversion into other forms of electrical energy (photovoltaic plants, above all where accumulator batteries are used);
- electric traction (tram-lines, underground railways, etc.);
- supply of emergency or auxiliary services;
- particular industrial installations (electrolytic processes, etc.).
[ABB]Можно выделить четыре области применения постоянного тока в низковольтных электроустановках:
- преобразование различных видов энергии в электрическую (фотоэлектрические установки с аккумуляторными батареями);
- энергоснабжение транспорта на электрической тяге (трамваи, метро и т. д.)
- электропитание аварийных или вспомогательных служб;
- специальные промышленные установки (например, с использованием электролитических процессов и т. п.).
[Интент]Тематики
- электротехника, основные понятия
Синонимы
EN
прямое включение
—
[Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]Тематики
- электротехника, основные понятия
EN
пульт диспетчера
—
[Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]Тематики
- электротехника, основные понятия
EN
работающий на постоянном токе
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
символ управления устройством
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]Тематики
EN
система цифрового управления
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]Тематики
EN
центр обработки данных
центр обработки и хранения данных
ЦОД
Консолидированный комплекс инженерно-технических средств, обеспечивающий безопасную централизованную обработку, хранение и предоставление данных, сервисов и приложений, а также вычислительную инфраструктуру для автоматизации бизнес-задач компании. ЦОД состоит из следующих элементов: серверного комплекса, хранилища данных, сети передачи данных, инфраструктуры, организационной структуры, системы управления.
[ http://www.dtln.ru/slovar-terminov]Тематики
Синонимы
EN
цифровая вычислительная машина
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > DC
-
4 compensation
ˌkɔmpenˈseɪʃən сущ.
1) а) возмещение, компенсирование б) мед. компенсация в) реабилитация( психологическая помощь людям в состоянии депрессии, нервного срыва и т.д.)
2) а) вознаграждение Syn: reward, recompense б) выплата, компенсация payment, remuneration
3) тех. уравновешивание;
уравнивание;
компенсация возмещение, компенсация;
- to make * for smth. заплатить компенсацию за что-л;
- claim for * иск о возмещении убытков;
- by way of * в качестве компенсации;
- * for injury компенсация за увечье;
- his hearing has became acute in * for loss of sight потеря зрения у него компенсируется слухом вознаграждение;
жалование, денежное вознаграждение;
- the * of employees выплаты служащим( специальное) балансирование;
уравновешивание (специальное) уравнивание;
компенсация;
- * gear (автомобильное) дифференциал, дифференциальная передача;
- * winding (электротехника) уравнительная обмотка( физиологическое) (медицина) восстановление, уравновешивание, компенсация;
- * disturbance( медицина) расстройство /нарушение/ компенсации (психологическое) компенсирующее поведение;
- his hearty manner was a * for his feeling of insecurity за его непринужденным поведением скрывалось чувство неуверенности (радиотехника) коррекция, компенсация accident ~ компенсация за ущерб от несчастного случая advance ~ предварительная компенсация average ~ компенсация убытков, причиненных судну, грузу и фрахту compensation балансирование ~ возмещение, компенсация, вознаграждение ~ возмещение, компенсация;
to make compensation (for smth.) компенсировать( что-л.) ~ возмещение ~ вознаграждение ~ доход ~ жалованье ~ заработная плата ~ (шотл.) зачет требований ~ компенсация;
компенсационные выплаты;
возмещение;
оплата за труд ~ компенсация ~ платеж за услуги ~ покрытие расходов ~ пособие по несчастному случаю ~ уравновешивание ~ тех. уравновешивание;
уравнивание;
компенсация ~ for absence компенсация за отсутствие ~ for damage компенсация за ущерб damage: compensation for ~ возмещение ущерба ~ for disablement компенсация за нетрудоспособность ~ for expropriation компенсация за конфискацию ~ for inconvenience компенсация за неудобства ~ for loss of earnings компенсация за потерю дохода ~ for loss of income компенсация за потерю дохода ~ for loss of office компенсация при увольнении ~ for loss of use компенсация за лишение использования ~ for loss or damage компенсация за ущерб или повреждение ~ for travelling expenses компенсация транспортных расходов ~ for value-added tax компенсация налога на добавочную стоимость ~ in money денежная компенсация ~ of employees from the rest of world компенсационные платежи работникам из внешнего источника ~ of nonresident employees компенсация работникам, не проживающим по месту службы ~ of repairing cost возмещение стоимости ремонта disablement ~ компенсация за потерю трудоспособности dismissal ~ выходное пособие full wage ~ компенсация в размере полной ставки заработной платы holiday ~ компенсация за отпуск industrial injury ~ компенсация за производственную травму lag ~ вчт. коррекция на отставание lead ~ вчт. коррекция на опережение lump sum ~ общая сумма страхового возмещения ~ возмещение, компенсация;
to make compensation (for smth.) компенсировать (что-л.) minimum ~ минимальная компенсация money ~ денежная компенсация money ~ денежное возмещение obtain ~ получать компенсацию overtime ~ компенсация за работу в сверхурочные часы pay ~ выплачивать компенсацию short-term ~ краткосрочные компенсационные операции sick leave ~ пособие по болезни slander ~ компенсация за клевету unemployment ~ пособие по безработице wage ~ компенсация заработной платы wage drift ~ компенсация отклонения фактической заработной платы от расчетных ставок workmen's ~ компенсация работников;
выплата пособия при производственном травматизме workmen's ~ пособие по нетрудоспособностиБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > compensation
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5 earnings
сущ.1) эк. тр. заработок, доход ( употребляется по отношению к физическому лицу)earnings differentials [difference in earnings, earnings difference\] between men and women — разница в заработках мужчин и женщин
annual earnings — годовой заработок [доход\]
See:average hourly earnings, average indexed monthly earnings, expected earnings, gross earnings, incentive earnings, real average weekly earnings, real earnings, non-pensionable earnings, pensionable earnings, export earnings, earnings drift, earnings inequality, earnings rule, Mincer earnings function, earnings test, earnings threshold, lower earnings limit, reduced earnings allowance upper earnings limit, State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme, annual retirement earnings test exempt amount, compensation for loss of earnings, earn2) учет прибыль, чистый доход (по отношению к предприятию означает чистый доход от какой-л. деятельности: выручка минус затраты)See:earnings-at-risk, earnings per share, equity earnings, expected earnings, export earnings, gross earnings, net earnings, real earnings, earnings surprise, quality of earnings, earnings-price ratio, instability index of earnings
* * *
прибыль, доходы, поступления, заработок.* * *выручка; доход; поступления; прибыли (разг.); чистая прибыль (после уплаты налогов); фактический доход. . Словарь экономических терминов . -
6 policy
I сущ.общ. политика, курс, стратегия [методика, линия\] поведения [действия\] (совокупность принципов, направлений и способов деятельности в определенной области)policy of neutrality, neutrality policy — политика нейтралитета
policy of appeasement, appeasement policy — политика умиротворения
near-optimal policy — политика, близкая к оптимальной
short-sighted [myopic\] policy — недальновидная [близорукая\] политика
subtle policy — тонкая [умная\] политика
prudent policy — разумная [предусмотрительная\] политика
cautious policy — осторожная [осмотрительная\] политика
clear-cut [clear\] policy — четкая [ясная\] политика
rigid policy — твердая [жесткая\] политика
sound [wise\] policy — здравая [мудрая\] политика
long-run [long-range\] policy — долгосрочная политика, политика дальнего прицела
consistent policy — последовательная [неизменная\] политика
deliberate policy — обдуманная [взвешенная\] политика
moderate policy — умеренная [сдержанная\] политика
to carry out [to conduct, to operate\] a policy — проводить политику
to implement a policy — осуществлять [проводить\] политику
to effect a policy — осуществлять [реализовать\] политику
to set [to set down\] a policy — устанавливать политику
to form [shape\] a policy — вырабатывать политику
to reverse a policy — резко [круто\] изменить политику
to adhere to [to follow, to pursue\] a policy — следовать политике, придерживаться политики, проводить политику
to ease [to relax\] policy — ослаблять [смягчать\] политику
easing [relaxation, ease\] of policy — ослабление [смягчение\] политики
policy tool — средство проведения политики, орудие [инструмент\] политики
policy manual — руководство, инструкция
policy objective — цель [задача\] политики
two-track [twin\] policy — двойственная политика
government policy on wages [wages policy\] — государственная политика в области оплаты труда
information policy — информационная политика, политика в области информации
language policy — языковая политика, политика в области [в отношении\] языка
export policy — экспортная политика, политика в области экспорта
import policy — импортная политика, политика в области импорта
education policy, educational policy — образовательная политика, политика в области образования
science policy — научная политика, политика в области науки
fishery policy, fisheries policy — политика рыболовства, политика в области рыболовства, рыболовная политика
privacy policy — политика конфиденциальности, политика (в отношении) конфиденциальности личной [частной\] информации
Our policy is to submit all contracts to the legal department. — Мы придерживаемся политики предоставления всех контрактов на изучение в юридический отдел.
It is not the normal policy of the council to give grants for more than three years. — Выдавать гранты более чем на три года не в правилах совета.
The government made a policy statement [a statement of policy\]. — Правительство сделало программное заявление.
for reasons of policy — по политическим соображениям, по соображениям политики
The first step in ensuring your computer security is up to scratch is to write a security policy. — Первый шаг на пути обеспечения поддержания вашей компьютерной безопасности на должном уровне — разработка политики безопасности.
See:agricultural policy, anti-inflationary policy, antitrust policy, beggar-thy-neighbour policy, benign neglect policy, budgetary policy, business policy, commercial policy 1), competition policy, consumer policy, corporate social policy, countercyclical policy, credit policy, currency policy, customs policy, demographic policy, discount policy, economic policy, employment policy, environmental policy, exchange policy, exchange rate policy, fiscal policy, foreign policy, foreign exchange policy ! foreign trade policy, good neighbour policy, home policy, incomes policy, industrial policy, inflationary policy, investment policy, monetary policy, open-door policy, open market policy, organizational policy, policy of continuity, policy of drift, policy of obstruction, population policy, procurement policy, social policy, stocking policy, tax policy, trade policy, wages policy, wholesale policy, policy committee, policy departure, policy economics, policy maker, policymaker, policy reversal, politics, technique, procedureII сущ.страх. (страховой) полис (документ, который выдается страховщиком страхователю в подтверждение заключения договора страхования; содержит условия страхования; служит юридическим доказательством заключения договора страхования)to issue [write up, write\] a policy — выдавать [выписывать\] полис
to take out a policy — получить [приобрести\] полис, застраховаться
to effect a policy — застраховаться, приобрести полис
to carry a policy — иметь (страховой) полис, быть застрахованным
to purchase [to buy\] a policy — покупать полис
to obtain [get\] a policy — приобрести полис
to terminate a policy — прекратить действие полиса, аннулировать полис
termination of a policy — прекращение действия [аннулирование\] полиса
to void a policy — признавать полис недействительным, аннулировать полис
to keep a policy in force — поддерживать полис в силе, сохранять действие полиса
This policy covers the cost of injury or damage caused by another driver who is not insured. — Этот полис покрывает [страхует, распространяется на\] расходы, связанные с травмой или ущербом, причиненным незастрахованным водителем. [Этот полис предоставляет страховую защиту от расходов, связанных с травмой или ущербом, причиненным незастрахованным водителем.\]
This portion of the policy covers you in the event a claim or lawsuit is brought against you for bodily injury or property damage as the result of an accident or event occurring on your property. — Эта часть полиса предоставляет вам страховую защиту в случае [страхует вас на случай\] подачи жалобы или иска против вас в связи с нанесением телесных повреждений или имущественного ущерба в результате несчастного случая или иного события, произошедшего на территории вашего владения.
to be covered by a policy — покрываться [охватывается, страховаться\] полисом
$500000 insurance policy, insurance policy of $500000 — страховой полис на сумму $500000
policy amount, amount of a policy — сумма полиса
a policy expires, a policy lapses, a policy matures — срок действия полиса истекает
expired [lapsed, matured\] policy — истекший [прекративший действие\] полис
policy endorsement, endorsement to a policy, policy rider, rider to a policy — приложение [дополнение\] к полису
Syn:See:cargo policy, commercial policy 2), tenant's policy, accident policy, annual policy, annuity policy, assessable policy, automobile liability policy, blanket policy, business auto policy, business owners policy, cancellable policy, claims-made policy, combination policy, commercial package policy, convertible policy, dental policy, endowment policy, equity-linked policy, fire policy, floating policy, general liability policy, group policy, homeowner's policy, individual policy, joint policy, life insurance policy, long-term policy, master policy, non-assessable policy, noncancellable policy, non-participating policy, non-qualifying policy, non-tax-qualified policy, occurrence policy, open policy, package policy, paid-up policy, participating policy, partnership policy, personal auto policy, professional liability policy, rated policy, qualifying policy, renewable policy, single premium policy, short-term policy, surplus lines policy, survivorship policy, tax-qualified policy, unit-linked policy, valued policy, certificate of insurance, insurance contract, cover note, policyholder, insurance, assurance, insurance identification card, insurer, insured, insurance money, insured event, insured loss, insurance claim, insurance period, insurance premium, declarations section, coverage part, exclusion, rider
* * *
страховой полис; = insurance policy.* * *. . Словарь экономических терминов .* * *см. agreement -
7 ID
1) Общая лексика: ИК2) Компьютерная техника: Information Design, Intelligent Device, Intelligent Display, Internal Directory3) Авиация: Directive to intercept and identify the target (also aircrew ID accomplished, followed by type aircraft)4) Американизм: Independence Day5) Военный термин: Immediate Dominance, Inniskilling Dragoons, Instrumentation Directorate, Intelligence Department, identification data, immediate delivery, impact detector, inadvertent destruction, incapacitating dose, indefinite delivery, indicating device, infantry depot, infantry division, infective dose, information department, information display, initial development, injected dose, inner diameter, installation data, intelligence division, intelligence duties, interactive discrimination, interface document, intrusion detector, issue date, item description, выводящая из строя токсодоза, Increased Deployability (Posture), identification document6) Техника: Internet-draft, initial distribution, input detector, instrumental drift, inventory difference, inversed diode, isolation diffusion, the same7) Математика: Integrate Differentiate, Iterative Dichotomizer, безгранично делимый (infinitely divisible), бесконечно делимый (infinitely divisible)8) Юридический термин: Identify or Identification, Interior Department, identification card, income duty9) Биржевой термин: идентифицирующий код (identification code)10) Грубое выражение: Inner Dummy11) Политика: Indonesia12) Телекоммуникации: пароль, идентификационный код (ФА)13) Сокращение: AMP Identification Amplification, Idaho (US state), Identification Interface Device, Indonesia (NATO country code), Infantry Division (USA), identify, indicator driver, induced draft, Idaho, independent, intradermal, instructional designer14) Университет: Individual Design, Individual Development, Instructional Design, Instructor Development15) Физиология: During The Day, Ill Defined, Immuno Deficiency, Ineffective Dose, Insertion Device, Intestinal Diet17) Вычислительная техника: identificator, information distributor, instruction decoder, декодировщик команд18) Литература: International Director19) Нефть: deep induction log, internal diameter, внутренний диаметр (inside diameter)20) Транспорт: Intersection Dimension21) Фирменный знак: Image Dynamics22) СМИ: Into The Darkness23) Деловая лексика: Incredible Deals, Industrial Distribution, Industry Discount, Information And Decisions, Information Database, Intelligent Design, Interbank Deposit24) Путешествия: идентификационная карта25) SAP. краткое название26) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: name, маркировка, inside diameter (of a pipe, vessel, or similar container)27) Образование: Intellectually Deficient28) Сетевые технологии: identifier29) Полимеры: inside diameter, inside dimension30) Ядерная физика: Isotope Dilution-mass31) Сахалин Р: Internal Diameter34) Безопасность: Intrusion Detection, identity, идентификационный номер (адрес)35) Расширение файла: Disk identification file, Identification file (e.g. disk.id)36) Нефть и газ: i.d.37) Электротехника: inductance38) Должность: Intelligent Designer39) Чат: I Deserve40) НАСА: Idle Format41) СМС: I Dare -
8 Id
1) Общая лексика: ИК2) Компьютерная техника: Information Design, Intelligent Device, Intelligent Display, Internal Directory3) Авиация: Directive to intercept and identify the target (also aircrew ID accomplished, followed by type aircraft)4) Американизм: Independence Day5) Военный термин: Immediate Dominance, Inniskilling Dragoons, Instrumentation Directorate, Intelligence Department, identification data, immediate delivery, impact detector, inadvertent destruction, incapacitating dose, indefinite delivery, indicating device, infantry depot, infantry division, infective dose, information department, information display, initial development, injected dose, inner diameter, installation data, intelligence division, intelligence duties, interactive discrimination, interface document, intrusion detector, issue date, item description, выводящая из строя токсодоза, Increased Deployability (Posture), identification document6) Техника: Internet-draft, initial distribution, input detector, instrumental drift, inventory difference, inversed diode, isolation diffusion, the same7) Математика: Integrate Differentiate, Iterative Dichotomizer, безгранично делимый (infinitely divisible), бесконечно делимый (infinitely divisible)8) Юридический термин: Identify or Identification, Interior Department, identification card, income duty9) Биржевой термин: идентифицирующий код (identification code)10) Грубое выражение: Inner Dummy11) Политика: Indonesia12) Телекоммуникации: пароль, идентификационный код (ФА)13) Сокращение: AMP Identification Amplification, Idaho (US state), Identification Interface Device, Indonesia (NATO country code), Infantry Division (USA), identify, indicator driver, induced draft, Idaho, independent, intradermal, instructional designer14) Университет: Individual Design, Individual Development, Instructional Design, Instructor Development15) Физиология: During The Day, Ill Defined, Immuno Deficiency, Ineffective Dose, Insertion Device, Intestinal Diet17) Вычислительная техника: identificator, information distributor, instruction decoder, декодировщик команд18) Литература: International Director19) Нефть: deep induction log, internal diameter, внутренний диаметр (inside diameter)20) Транспорт: Intersection Dimension21) Фирменный знак: Image Dynamics22) СМИ: Into The Darkness23) Деловая лексика: Incredible Deals, Industrial Distribution, Industry Discount, Information And Decisions, Information Database, Intelligent Design, Interbank Deposit24) Путешествия: идентификационная карта25) SAP. краткое название26) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: name, маркировка, inside diameter (of a pipe, vessel, or similar container)27) Образование: Intellectually Deficient28) Сетевые технологии: identifier29) Полимеры: inside diameter, inside dimension30) Ядерная физика: Isotope Dilution-mass31) Сахалин Р: Internal Diameter34) Безопасность: Intrusion Detection, identity, идентификационный номер (адрес)35) Расширение файла: Disk identification file, Identification file (e.g. disk.id)36) Нефть и газ: i.d.37) Электротехника: inductance38) Должность: Intelligent Designer39) Чат: I Deserve40) НАСА: Idle Format41) СМС: I Dare -
9 id
1) Общая лексика: ИК2) Компьютерная техника: Information Design, Intelligent Device, Intelligent Display, Internal Directory3) Авиация: Directive to intercept and identify the target (also aircrew ID accomplished, followed by type aircraft)4) Американизм: Independence Day5) Военный термин: Immediate Dominance, Inniskilling Dragoons, Instrumentation Directorate, Intelligence Department, identification data, immediate delivery, impact detector, inadvertent destruction, incapacitating dose, indefinite delivery, indicating device, infantry depot, infantry division, infective dose, information department, information display, initial development, injected dose, inner diameter, installation data, intelligence division, intelligence duties, interactive discrimination, interface document, intrusion detector, issue date, item description, выводящая из строя токсодоза, Increased Deployability (Posture), identification document6) Техника: Internet-draft, initial distribution, input detector, instrumental drift, inventory difference, inversed diode, isolation diffusion, the same7) Математика: Integrate Differentiate, Iterative Dichotomizer, безгранично делимый (infinitely divisible), бесконечно делимый (infinitely divisible)8) Юридический термин: Identify or Identification, Interior Department, identification card, income duty9) Биржевой термин: идентифицирующий код (identification code)10) Грубое выражение: Inner Dummy11) Политика: Indonesia12) Телекоммуникации: пароль, идентификационный код (ФА)13) Сокращение: AMP Identification Amplification, Idaho (US state), Identification Interface Device, Indonesia (NATO country code), Infantry Division (USA), identify, indicator driver, induced draft, Idaho, independent, intradermal, instructional designer14) Университет: Individual Design, Individual Development, Instructional Design, Instructor Development15) Физиология: During The Day, Ill Defined, Immuno Deficiency, Ineffective Dose, Insertion Device, Intestinal Diet17) Вычислительная техника: identificator, information distributor, instruction decoder, декодировщик команд18) Литература: International Director19) Нефть: deep induction log, internal diameter, внутренний диаметр (inside diameter)20) Транспорт: Intersection Dimension21) Фирменный знак: Image Dynamics22) СМИ: Into The Darkness23) Деловая лексика: Incredible Deals, Industrial Distribution, Industry Discount, Information And Decisions, Information Database, Intelligent Design, Interbank Deposit24) Путешествия: идентификационная карта25) SAP. краткое название26) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: name, маркировка, inside diameter (of a pipe, vessel, or similar container)27) Образование: Intellectually Deficient28) Сетевые технологии: identifier29) Полимеры: inside diameter, inside dimension30) Ядерная физика: Isotope Dilution-mass31) Сахалин Р: Internal Diameter34) Безопасность: Intrusion Detection, identity, идентификационный номер (адрес)35) Расширение файла: Disk identification file, Identification file (e.g. disk.id)36) Нефть и газ: i.d.37) Электротехника: inductance38) Должность: Intelligent Designer39) Чат: I Deserve40) НАСА: Idle Format41) СМС: I Dare -
10 пуансон
2) Medicine: marking instrument, pressure stamp3) Engineering: blockout (в железобетонных конструкциях), coin, cutting punch, docker (для накалывания теста), forcer, hob (мощного пресса для выдавливания), male core, male die, male mold, plunger, plunger die, punch pin, punch stamp (перфоратора), ram, stamping punch, stem, swage, top die, top ram, upper die4) Construction: drifter5) Automobile industry: drift6) Forestry: male former7) Metallurgy: movable die8) Polygraphy: letter-punch9) Information technology: pin, punch knife, punch stamp (в перфораторе)10) Oil: force plug11) Mechanic engineering: snap (для закладки заклёпок)12) Advertising: die (для перфорирования киноплёнки)13) Industrial economy: core14) Polymers: force plunger, hob (для выдавливания полости формы в металлическом блоке), piston, positive die, top force15) Automation: hub, male die part, moving die, plug (пресс-формы), poncheon16) Plastics: force plug (привинчивающийся к плите), male die (для вакуумного формования), male mould, patrix, positive die (для вакуумного формования)17) Telegraphy: paper-type punch, tape punch18) Chemical weapons: press punch (пробойник) -
11 labor
1. n1) труд, работа2) рабочая сила•to restructure the existing international division of labor — перестраивать / менять структуру существующего международного разделения труда
- allocation of laborto utilize low-cost labor — использовать дешевую рабочую силу / дешевый труд
- arduous labor
- cheap labor
- child labor
- common labor
- complex labor
- compound labor
- concrete labor
- conditions of labor
- constructive labor
- creative labor
- demand for skilled labor
- division of labor
- drift of labor
- expert labor
- female labor
- forced labor
- fruits of labor
- geographical division of labor
- guaranteed remuneration of labor
- hard labor
- highly mechanized labor
- highly skilled labor
- hired labor
- indirect labor
- individual labor
- industrial labor
- inefficient labor
- intellectual labor - juvenile labor
- live labor
- lost labor
- manual labor
- marginal labor
- means of labor
- mental labor
- migration of labor
- non-union labor
- peaceful labor
- personal labor
- productivity of labor
- products of labor
- regular labor - simple labor
- skilled labor
- slave labor
- social labor
- socialized labor
- surplus of labor
- trained labor
- unemployed labor
- unionized labor
- unpaid labor
- unskilled labor
- useful labor
- useless labor
- voluntary labor
- volunteer labor
- wage labor
- waste of labor
- world cooperation of labor 2. vтрудиться, работать; добиваться -
12 action
'ækʃən1) (something done: Action, not talking, is necessary if we are to defeat the enemy; Take action immediately; The firemen are ready to go into action.) gjerning, handling, aksjon2) (movement: Tennis needs a good wrist action.) bevegelse3) (a legal case: He brought an action for divorce against his wife.) saksøking, saksanlegg4) (the events (of a play, film etc): The action of the play takes place on an island.) handling5) (a battle; fighting: He was killed in action; Our troops fought an action against the enemy.) kamp(handling), strid•- out of actionaktivitet--------gjerning--------handlingsubst. \/ˈækʃ(ə)n\/1) handling, tiltak2) aksjon3) handlemåte, opptreden4) ( kjemi) innvirkning, påvirkning5) ( medisin) virkning, effekt6) ( om maskiner) funksjon, virkemåte, gang7) mekanismeta ladegrep \/ spenne hanen (på revolveren) \/ trekke sluttstykket tilbake8) (i skuespill, roman e.l.) handling, action• action film\/movie9) ( hverdagslig) begivenhet, aktivitet11) (militærvesen, overført) kamp, aksjon, stridshandling12) bevegelse, ganglag, gester13) (amer., slang) sex, samleie14) (amer., slang) kriminell aktivitet, narkotikahandelaction! ( ved filminnspilling) opptak!action for damages ( jus) erstatningssøksmålaction for defamation ( jus) injuriesøksmålaction painting ( kunst) abstrakt ekspresjonisme, spontanismeaction replay (TV, video) i repetisjon, i sakte filmaction stations (britisk, militærvesen) (kamp)posisjon, kampstillingaction stations! klar til kamp!bring an action against anlegge sak mot, stevne, saksøkecall into action sette i funksjonenter an action ( jus) innlegge protestget a piece of the action ta del i begivenhetene, være der det skjer, være med på moroaget in on the action bli med på det som skjergo into action gå til handling, ta affærekilled in action drept i strida man of action en handlingens mannplan of action slagplan, handlingsplanput into action sette i gang, sette i funksjon, iverksetteput out of action sette ut av funksjon, sette ut av drift, stenge av ( militærvesen) gjøre kampudyktig ( hverdagslig) sette ut av spilltake action gripe inn, gå til handling, ta forholdsregler ( jus) anlegge saktake industrial action streike -
13 período1
1 = period, phase, stage, term, chapter, interregnum, span, spell, stint, stretch.Ex. Library use declines during the June-October period when examinations have finished and the students are on vacation.Ex. This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.Ex. The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.Ex. The board consists of seven members elected by popular ballot for three-year terms.Ex. The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.Ex. In American higher education the interregnum between world wars was a time of drift and disappointment.Ex. The disc held an 18-month span of data from CAB ABSTRACTS.Ex. The outstanding example is Ian Sillitoe, who started writing seriously only after reading undisturbed during a lengthy spell in hospital.Ex. Evidence for identification is rarely available, but in a few cases very full printers' records have survived in which individual stints are accounted for.Ex. After all, who has not felt dog-tired and drained, sometimes for long stretches, at one time or another?.----* breve período de tiempo = while.* durante este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.* durante largos períodos de tiempo = over long periods of time.* durante un largo período de tiempo = over a long time scale, over a long period of time, for a long period of time, over a long period.* durante un período de + Expresión Temporal = over a period of + Expresión Temporal.* durante un período de prueba = on a trial basis.* durante un período de tiempo = for a number of years.* durante un periodo de tiempo determinado = over a period of time.* durante un período de tiempo indefinido = over an indefinite period of time, over an indefinite span of time.* durante un período indefinido = for an indefinite period.* en el período penoso de = in the throes of.* en el período previo a = in the run up to, during the run up to.* en este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.* en período de = in the throes of.* en período de desarrollo = in ascendancy.* en un corto período de tiempo = in a short period of time.* en un período de = at a time of.* en un período de transición = in a period of transition.* en un período más o menos lejano = in the near future, in the near future.* largos períodos de tiempo = long periods of time.* madre en período de lactancia = nursing mother.* mujer en período de lactancia = nursing woman.* pasar por un período de = go through + a period of.* período bajo = dry spell.* período culminante = peak period.* período de baja actividad = dry spell.* período de calma = lull.* período de cinco años = five-year period, period of five years.* período de cobertura = date of coverage, period of coverage.* período de cultivo = growing season.* período de descanso = rest time.* período de descuento por inscripción anticipada = early bird period.* período de entreguerras, el = interwar period, the.* período de espera = waiting period.* período de estancamiento = plateau [plateaux, -pl.].* período de financiación = funding period.* periodo de gracia = grace period, time of grace.* período de inactividad = doldrums.* período de incubación = incubation period.* período de la prensa manual, el = hand-press period, the.* período de la prensa mecánica, el = machine-press period, the.* período de lluvia = wet spell.* periodo de mandato = period of office.* período de mayor demanda = peak time.* período de McCarthy, el = McCarthy period, the.* período de observación = observation period.* período de poca actividad = slack time, slack period, slack activity time.* período de prácticas = work placement, training attachment.* período de prácticas en centros = practicum.* período de prácticas en la industria = industrial placement.* período de prueba = probationary period, trial period, trial run, probation, period of probation, probation period.* período de recortes presupuestarios = budget-slashing times.* período de reflexión = cooling-off period.* período de sequía = dry spell.* período de servicio = tour of duty.* período de tiempo = amount of time, time, time frame [timeframe], time lapse, time period, time span [time-span], time slot, period of time, date range.* período de vacaciones = vacation period.* período de validez = period of validity.* período de vigencia = time span [time-span].* período de votación = balloting period.* período escolar = school days.* período glacial = ice age.* periodo histórico = historical period.* período medieval = mediaeval period [medieval period, -USA], mediaeval times [medieval times, -USA].* período positivo = bonanza.* período previo = run-up.* período previo a la lectura = prereading.* período seco = dry spell.* período transitorio = transitional period, transition period.* período ventajoso = bonanza.* por un período de tiempo limitado = on a short-term basis.* préstamo de periodo fijo = fixed date loan period.* trabajar durante un período de tiempo = serve + stint.* un período de = a stretch of.* un período determinado = a frozen moment in time.* un periodo intenso de = a flurry of. -
14 período
m.1 period, period of time, length of time, time.2 period, epoch, age.3 period, menses, menstruation period, menstruation.4 period, cycle.5 stage in a process, stadium.* * *1 period* * *noun m.* * *periodo masculino1)a) ( de tiempo) periodb) (Geol, Mat, Fís) period2) ( menstruación) period* * *periodo masculino1)a) ( de tiempo) periodb) (Geol, Mat, Fís) period2) ( menstruación) period* * *período11 = period, phase, stage, term, chapter, interregnum, span, spell, stint, stretch.Ex: Library use declines during the June-October period when examinations have finished and the students are on vacation.
Ex: This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.Ex: The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.Ex: The board consists of seven members elected by popular ballot for three-year terms.Ex: The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.Ex: In American higher education the interregnum between world wars was a time of drift and disappointment.Ex: The disc held an 18-month span of data from CAB ABSTRACTS.Ex: The outstanding example is Ian Sillitoe, who started writing seriously only after reading undisturbed during a lengthy spell in hospital.Ex: Evidence for identification is rarely available, but in a few cases very full printers' records have survived in which individual stints are accounted for.Ex: After all, who has not felt dog-tired and drained, sometimes for long stretches, at one time or another?.* breve período de tiempo = while.* durante este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.* durante largos períodos de tiempo = over long periods of time.* durante un largo período de tiempo = over a long time scale, over a long period of time, for a long period of time, over a long period.* durante un período de + Expresión Temporal = over a period of + Expresión Temporal.* durante un período de prueba = on a trial basis.* durante un período de tiempo = for a number of years.* durante un periodo de tiempo determinado = over a period of time.* durante un período de tiempo indefinido = over an indefinite period of time, over an indefinite span of time.* durante un período indefinido = for an indefinite period.* en el período penoso de = in the throes of.* en el período previo a = in the run up to, during the run up to.* en este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.* en período de = in the throes of.* en período de desarrollo = in ascendancy.* en un corto período de tiempo = in a short period of time.* en un período de = at a time of.* en un período de transición = in a period of transition.* en un período más o menos lejano = in the near future, in the near future.* largos períodos de tiempo = long periods of time.* madre en período de lactancia = nursing mother.* mujer en período de lactancia = nursing woman.* pasar por un período de = go through + a period of.* período bajo = dry spell.* período culminante = peak period.* período de baja actividad = dry spell.* período de calma = lull.* período de cinco años = five-year period, period of five years.* período de cobertura = date of coverage, period of coverage.* período de cultivo = growing season.* período de descanso = rest time.* período de descuento por inscripción anticipada = early bird period.* período de entreguerras, el = interwar period, the.* período de espera = waiting period.* período de estancamiento = plateau [plateaux, -pl.].* período de financiación = funding period.* periodo de gracia = grace period, time of grace.* período de inactividad = doldrums.* período de incubación = incubation period.* período de la prensa manual, el = hand-press period, the.* período de la prensa mecánica, el = machine-press period, the.* período de lluvia = wet spell.* periodo de mandato = period of office.* período de mayor demanda = peak time.* período de McCarthy, el = McCarthy period, the.* período de observación = observation period.* período de poca actividad = slack time, slack period, slack activity time.* período de prácticas = work placement, training attachment.* período de prácticas en centros = practicum.* período de prácticas en la industria = industrial placement.* período de prueba = probationary period, trial period, trial run, probation, period of probation, probation period.* período de recortes presupuestarios = budget-slashing times.* período de reflexión = cooling-off period.* período de sequía = dry spell.* período de servicio = tour of duty.* período de tiempo = amount of time, time, time frame [timeframe], time lapse, time period, time span [time-span], time slot, period of time, date range.* período de vacaciones = vacation period.* período de validez = period of validity.* período de vigencia = time span [time-span].* período de votación = balloting period.* período escolar = school days.* período glacial = ice age.* periodo histórico = historical period.* período medieval = mediaeval period [medieval period, -USA], mediaeval times [medieval times, -USA].* período positivo = bonanza.* período previo = run-up.* período previo a la lectura = prereading.* período seco = dry spell.* período transitorio = transitional period, transition period.* período ventajoso = bonanza.* por un período de tiempo limitado = on a short-term basis.* préstamo de periodo fijo = fixed date loan period.* trabajar durante un período de tiempo = serve + stint.* un período de = a stretch of.* un período determinado = a frozen moment in time.* un periodo intenso de = a flurry of.período22 = period.Ex: The debate on whether or not a woman can get pregnant during her period has been going on for decades now.
* del período = menstrual.* * *período, periodoA1 (de tiempo) periodun período de prueba de tres meses a three-month trial periodel período de entreguerras the period o the time o the years between the wars2 ( Geol) period3 ( Mat) period4 ( Fís) periodCompuestos:waiting periodhalf-lifeB (menstruación) period* * *
Multiple Entries:
periodo
período
período,◊ periodo sustantivo masculino
period
periodo, período sustantivo masculino
1 (espacio de tiempo) period
2 (menstruación) tener el periodo, to have one's period
periodo, período sustantivo masculino
1 (espacio de tiempo) period
2 (menstruación) tener el periodo, to have one's period
' período' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
alquilar
- antigüedad
- clásica
- clásico
- confinamiento
- día
- durante
- edad
- entrada
- entrado
- época
- era
- espacio
- glacial
- mandato
- mediar
- momento
- periodo
- racha
- restaurar
- sementera
- tarde
- trienio
- última
- último
- vida
- abrir
- ampliación
- ampliar
- año
- aprendizaje
- atravesar
- auge
- convocatoria
- de
- detenido
- dividir
- entrar
- entretiempo
- espera
- hora
- infancia
- ir
- lactancia
- reemplazar
- reemplazo
- relajar
- semana
- siglo
- temporada
English:
age
- day
- downtime
- engagement
- for
- lapse
- lead-up
- lean
- live through
- midterm
- out
- pay out
- period
- probation
- residence
- short
- solid
- spell
- spread
- stint
- stretch
- tenancy
- term
- time
- tour
- transition
- trial
- unbroken
- grow
- interim
- life
- lull
- run
- sabbatical
* * *periodo, período nm1. [espacio de tiempo] period;el primer periodo [de partido] the first halfperiodo contable accounting period;periodo de gestación gestation period;Com periodo de gracia days of grace;periodo de incubación incubation period;periodo de prácticas trial period;periodo de prueba trial period;Ind periodo de reflexión [en disputa] cooling-off period;periodo refractario refractory period;periodo de transición transition period2. Mat period3. Fís period4. Geol ageperiodo glacial ice age;periodo interglacial interglacial period5. [menstruación] period;estar con el periodo, tener el periodo to be having one's period6. Ling period* * *m period* * *período orperiodo nm: period* * *período n period -
15 рух
ч1) motion; movementрух планет — motion ( revolution) of the planets
рух по спіралі — spiral motion, spiral revolution
зворотно-поступальний рух — alternate/reciprocal motion
обертальний рух — rotation, whirl
плавний рух — gliding motion, glide
турбулентний рух — whirl, eddy
приводити в рух — to put in motion, to set going
прийти в рух — to start moving; to be stirring to action ( активізуватися)
сила руху — impulse, impetus
в русі — astir, afoot, afloat, under way
вільні рухи спорт. — free-gymnastics
2) ( громадський) movementвизвольний рух — liberation ( emancipation) movement
рух на захист довкілля — environmentalist ( ecological) movement, environmentalism
3) ( транспортний) trafficзалізничний рух — railway traffic, train service, railway traffic
рух заднім ходом авт. — backing
правила вуличного руху — traffic regulations; highway code
4) -
16 station
1) станция; пункт; пост2) терминал; абонентский пульт3) устройство; блок•- accepting station
- access station
- aerodynamic broadcast station
- affiliated station
- airborne decameter radio station
- Alcatel station
- all-mine telephone station
- amplifying station
- analog switching station
- analog-digital station
- analytical photogrammetric station
- automatic trunk station
- background station
- backhaul station
- backlogged station
- balanced station
- base station
- base-airborne station
- base-radio station
- BB-switching back-to-back station
- BB-switching end terminal station
- BB-switching n-way branching station
- beacon station
- boat-radio station
- booster station
- broadcasting node station
- broadcasting station
- broadcasting-satellite space station
- buffer station
- callers-telephone station
- car-subscriber station
- CB station
- central fire-alarm station
- central station
- central-searching station
- channel station
- channel-attached station
- civil band station
- class-A station
- class-B station
- class-C station
- class-D station
- coastal Earth station
- coastal station
- coastal terrestrial radio station
- commercial radio station
- communication relay station
- compact hand station
- computerized data exchange station
- container terrestrial station
- control station
- control-measuring station
- converted-base station
- crossing station
- data station
- data-transmission station
- destination station
- digital communication station
- digital photogrammetic station
- digital switching station
- digital terminal station
- display station
- diving telephone station
- drift station
- Earth station
- electronic mobile station
- emergency frequency station
- emergency-position indicating radiobeacon station
- emergency-radio station
- exchange-service station
- feeder-amplifier station
- fifth generation radio station
- fifth-class mobile station
- first-class mobile station
- fixed control station
- fixed station
- fixed-frequency station
- fixed-microwave auxiliary station
- FM-broadcasting station
- forwarding station
- four-course radio-range station
- fourth class mobile station
- fourth-generation radio station
- gate station
- graphic station
- ground station
- ground wireless station
- head wagon radio station
- head-end station
- heavy mobile station
- helicopter radio station
- hydroacoustic station
- IF drop insertion station
- IF repeating branching station
- IF repeating through station
- IF repeating TV drop insertion station
- image station
- industrial-communication station
- inquiry station
- integrated station
- intercom station
- interfered radio station
- interferencing radio station
- intermediate station
- intradepartment-communication center station
- land mobile station
- land station
- life-raft radio station
- light-weight mobile station
- line station
- line waterside USB-station
- line-network station
- locomotive radio station
- loudspeaking-communication station
- low-power television frequency station
- magnetic-tape station
- main station
- major relay station
- managing-radio station
- manual-trunk station
- master station
- media command station
- media control station
- meter-band station
- microwave repeating station
- microwave station
- minor-relay station
- mobile-Earth station
- mobile-radio station
- mobile-television station
- mobile-tropospheric station
- movable radio station
- multiband station
- municipal radio station
- network station
- newsroom station
- nodal coastal radio station
- nodal-communication station
- nonmagnetic diving station
- nonserviced repeater station
- on-board station
- operative-communication station
- passive station
- physical station
- piezoelectric batteryless station
- pipeline control USB-station
- play station
- pole-mounted station
- portable radio station
- portable relay station
- primary station
- priority mobile station
- rack-mounted station
- radio station
- radio-beacon monitor station
- radio-beacon station
- radiodirection-finder station
- radio-positioning land station
- radio-positioning mobile station
- radio-range station
- radiosonde station
- radiotelegraph station
- radiotelephone station
- railway radio station
- reading station
- readout station
- receiving-earth station
- regenerating station
- relay station
- remote feeding station
- remote forwarding station
- remote monitoring station
- repeater station
- reserve terrestrial radio station
- retransmitting station
- road station
- rural-subscriber station
- satellite station
- second class mobile station
- secondary station
- sectional communication center station
- semistationary terrestrial station
- sensing station
- serviced station
- serviced-repeater station
- ship-Earth station
- ship-radio station
- six-channel relay transmission station
- slave station
- solar radio station
- source station
- spark-safe radio station
- standard frequency-and-time signal station
- state radio station
- state relay station
- stationary relay station
- stationary station
- stationary terrestrial station
- subcontrol station
- subscriber station
- subscription station
- supervised station
- switching station
- tail wagon radio station
- telecode communication station
- telegraph station
- telemetering station
- telephone-and-telegraph station
- television pickup station
- temporary fire communiation station
- terminal communication station
- terminal exchange station
- terminal network station
- terminal telegraph station
- terrestrial ship radio station
- terrestrial station
- terrestrial terminal station
- terrestrial-coastal station
- third class mobile station
- three-wire diving station
- toll station
- train communication station
- transfer station
- transmitting Earth station
- transport station
- transportable earth station
- tributary station
- tropospheric communication station
- trunk telephone station
- TV-transmitting station
- ultra-short-band station
- underground terminal station
- unified diving station
- unmanned station
- USB-station
- user station
- videotex station
- wall-mounted station
- working stationEnglish-Russian dictionary of telecommunications and their abbreviations > station
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17 design
1. n часто умысел2. n рел. божье провидение, божественный промысл3. n цель, намерениеwith design — с намерением, с целью
by design — намеренно; преднамеренно, предумышленно
design objective — цели проектирования; проектные параметры
4. n замысел; план, проект5. n планирование6. n вчт. проектирование; конструирование7. n чертёж, эскиз; конструкция; проект; расчёт8. n рисунок, узорpoor design — плохо выполненный, бедный, бедного рисунка
9. n модель10. n композиция11. n искусство композиции12. n дизайн; внешний вид, исполнение13. n произведение искусства14. v замышлять; намереваться; планировать15. v предназначать16. v составлять план, схему; планировать, проектировать, конструировать17. v вынашивать замысел; задумать18. v чертить; вычерчивать схему19. v заниматься проектированием, проектировать; быть проектировщиком, конструктором20. v исполнять, выполнять21. v книжн. собираться поехатьСинонимический ряд:1. figure (noun) device; figure; motif; motive; pattern; style2. intent (noun) aim; animus; end; goal; intendment; intent; intention; notion; object; objective; point; purpose; reason; target; thought; view3. makeup (noun) architecture; composition; constitution; construction; formation; makeup4. meaning (noun) drift; meaning; purport5. outline (noun) depiction; draft; illustration; ornament; outline; painting; stamp6. plan (noun) arrangement; blueprint; game plan; idea; lay out; layout; map; plan; plot; project; proposal; proposition; schema; scheme; strategy7. contrive (verb) conceive; contrive; fashion; hatch; model; think8. mean (verb) aim; contemplate; intend; mean; project; propose; purpose9. plan (verb) arrange; blueprint; cast; chart; devise; draw; draw up; frame; lay out; map; map out; plan; project; set out10. sketch (verb) delineate; outline; sketchАнтонимический ряд:accident; accomplish; achieve; artlessness; candour; chance; change; conjecture; construction; execute; execution; fairness; fluke; fortuity; guess -
18 sand
1. n песок, гравий2. n обыкн. песчинки3. n обыкн. l4. n песчаный пляж5. n отмель, песчаная коса6. n пески, пустыня7. n песок в песочных часахmanufactured sand — дроблёный песок; искусственный песок
loose damp sand — рыхлый песок навалом, насыпной песок
8. n время; дни жизниthe sands are running out — срок истекает; время подходит к концу; конец уже близок, жизнь подходит к концу
9. n амер. разг. выдержка, стойкость характера, мужество10. n песочный цвет11. n сл. деньги12. n разг. влажный, подмоченный сахар13. n горн. хвосты14. v посыпать песком15. v заносить песком16. v зарывать в песок17. v шлифовать, чистить пескомto sand off the rough edges — сгладить острые края, смягчить острые вопросы
18. v подмешивать песок, смешивать с пескомregular concrete sand — песок, годный для бетонов
19. v посадить на мельСинонимический ряд:1. granular silica (adj.) beach; coarse powder; desert sand; grain; granular silica; granule; grit; sand dune; sandy soil2. fortitude (noun) backbone; fortitude; grit; guts; intestinal fortitude; nerve; spunk3. sediment (noun) alluvium; deposit; deposition; drift; grounds; mud; sediment; silt -
19 песок
1. м. sandсупесь; глинистый песок — clay sand
2. мн. sandsперемещающиеся пески, плывуны — heaving sands
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20 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.
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Industrial Light & Magic — Industrial Light Magic Industrial Light Magic Création Mai 1975 Personnages clés … Wikipédia en Français
Industrial light & magic — Industrial Light Magic Industrial Light Magic Création Mai 1975 Personnages clés … Wikipédia en Français
Battle of Rorke's Drift — Part of the Anglo Zulu War The Defence of Rorke s Drift, by Alphonse de Neuville (1882) … Wikipedia
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Technological and industrial history of the United States — The technological and industrial history of the United States describes the United States emergence as one of the largest nations in the world as well as the most technologically powerful nation in the world. The availability of land and labor,… … Wikipedia
Cooling tower — Natural draft wet cooling hyperboloid towers at Didcot Power Station, UK … Wikipedia